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This book is about the logic of Boolean equations. Such equations were central in the "algebra of logic" created in 1847 by Boole [12, 13] and devel­ oped by others, notably Schroder [178], in the remainder of the nineteenth century. Boolean equations are also the language by which digital circuits are described today. Logicians in the twentieth century have abandoned Boole's equation­ based logic in favor of the more powerful predicate calculus. As a result, digital engineers-and others who use Boole's language routinely-remain largely unaware of its utility as a medium for reasoning. The aim of this book, accordingly, is to is to present a systematic outline of the logic of Boolean equations, in the hope that Boole's methods may prove useful in solving present-day problems. Two Logical Languages Logic seeks to reduce reasoning to calculation. Two main languages have been developed to achieve that object: Boole's "algebra of logic" and the predicate calculus. Boole's approach was to represent classes (e. g. , happy creatures, things productive of pleasure) by symbols and to represent logical statements as equations to be solved. His formulation proved inadequate, however, to represent ordinary discourse. A number of nineteenth-century logicians, including Jevons [94], Poretsky [159], Schroder [178], Venn [210], and Whitehead [212, 213], sought an improved formulation based on ex­ tensions or modifications of Boole's algebra. These efforts met with only limited success.

This book is about the logic of Boolean equations. Such equations were central in the "algebra of logic" created in 1847 by Boole [12, 13] and devel­ oped by others, notably Schroder [178], in the remainder of the nineteenth century. Boolean equations are also the language by which digital circuits are described today. Logicians in the twentieth century have abandoned Boole's equation­ based logic in favor of the more powerful predicate calculus. As a result, digital engineers-and others who use Boole's language routinely-remain largely unaware of its utility as a medium for reasoning. The aim of this book, accordingly, is to is to present a systematic outline of the logic of Boolean equations, in the hope that Boole's methods may prove useful in solving present-day problems. Two Logical Languages Logic seeks to reduce reasoning to calculation. Two main languages have been developed to achieve that object: Boole's "algebra of logic" and the predicate calculus. Boole's approach was to represent classes (e. g. , happy creatures, things productive of pleasure) by symbols and to represent logical statements as equations to be solved. His formulation proved inadequate, however, to represent ordinary discourse. A number of nineteenth-century logicians, including Jevons [94], Poretsky [159], Schroder [178], Venn [210], and Whitehead [212, 213], sought an improved formulation based on ex­ tensions or modifications of Boole's algebra. These efforts met with only limited success.

Timing research in high performance VLSI systems has advanced at a steady pace over the last few years, while tools, especially theoretical mechanisms, lag behind. Much present timing research relies heavily on timing diagrams, which, although intuitive, are inadequate for analysis of large designs with many parameters. Further, timing diagrams offer only approximations, not exact solutions, to many timing problems and provide little insight in the cases where temporal properties of a design interact intricately with the design's logical functionalities. This book presents a methodology for timing research which facilitates analy­ sis and design of circuits and systems in a unified temporal and logical domain. In the first part, we introduce an algebraic representation formalism, Timed Boolean Functions (TBF's), which integrates both logical and timing informa­ tion of digital circuits and systems into a single formalism. We also give a canonical form, TBF BDD's, for them, which can be used for efficient ma­ nipulation. In the second part, we apply Timed Boolean Functions to three problems in timing research, for which exact solutions are obtained for the first time: 1. computing the exact delays of combinational circuits and the minimum cycle times of finite state machines, 2. analysis and synthesis of wavepipelining circuits, a high speed architecture for which precise timing relations between signals are essential for correct operations, 3. verification of circuit and system performance and coverage of delay faults by testing.

IN 1959 I lectured on Boolean algebras at the University of Chicago. A mimeographed version of the notes on which the lectures were based circulated for about two years; this volume contains those notes, corrected and revised. Most of the corrections were suggested by Peter Crawley. To judge by his detailed and precise suggestions, he must have read every word, checked every reference, and weighed every argument, and I am lIery grateful to hirn for his help. This is not to say that he is to be held responsible for the imperfec­ tions that remain, and, in particular, I alone am responsible for all expressions of personal opinion and irreverent view­ point. P. R. H. Ann Arbor, Michigan ] anuary, 1963 Contents Section Page 1 1 Boolean rings ............................ . 2 Boolean algebras ......................... . 3 9 3 Fields of sets ............................ . 4 Regular open sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 . . . . . . 5 Elementary relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 . . . . . 6 Order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 . . . . . . . . . 7 Infinite operations. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 . . . . . 8 Subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 31 . . . . . . 9 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 . . . . . . . 10 Free algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 . . . . . . . 11 Ideals and filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 . . . . . . 12 The homomorphism theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 52 . . 13 Boolean a-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 . . . . . . 14 The countable chain condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 . . . 15 Measure algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 . . . . . . . 16 Atoms.. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . .. ... . . . . .. . . ... . . .. 69 17 Boolean spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 . . . . . . . 18 The representation theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 . . . 19 Duali ty for ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 81 . . . . . 20 Duality for homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 . . . . 21 Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 . . . . . . . . 22 Boolean a-spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 97 . . . . . 23 The representation of a-algebras . . . . . . . . .. . . 100 . 24 Boolean measure spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 104 . . . 25 Incomplete algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 109 . . . . . 26 Products of algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 115 . . . . 27 Sums of algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 119 . . . . . 28 Isomorphisms of factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 122 . . .

Reasoning in Boolean Networks provides a detailed treatment of recent research advances in algorithmic techniques for logic synthesis, test generation and formal verification of digital circuits. The book presents the central idea of approaching design automation problems for logic-level circuits by specific Boolean reasoning techniques. While Boolean reasoning techniques have been a central element of two-level circuit theory for many decades Reasoning in Boolean Networks describes a basic reasoning methodology for multi-level circuits. This leads to a unified view on two-level and multi-level logic synthesis. The presented reasoning techniques are applied to various CAD-problems to demonstrate their usefulness for today's industrially relevant problems. Reasoning in Boolean Networks provides lucid descriptions of basic algorithmic concepts in automatic test pattern generation, logic synthesis and verification and elaborates their intimate relationship to provide further intuition and insight into the subject. Numerous examples are provide for ease in understanding the material. Reasoning in Boolean Networks is intended for researchers in logic synthesis, VLSI testing and formal verification as well as for integrated circuit designers who want to enhance their understanding of basic CAD methodologies.

Reasoning in Boolean Networks provides a detailed treatment of recent research advances in algorithmic techniques for logic synthesis, test generation and formal verification of digital circuits. The book presents the central idea of approaching design automation problems for logic-level circuits by specific Boolean reasoning techniques. While Boolean reasoning techniques have been a central element of two-level circuit theory for many decades Reasoning in Boolean Networks describes a basic reasoning methodology for multi-level circuits. This leads to a unified view on two-level and multi-level logic synthesis. The presented reasoning techniques are applied to various CAD-problems to demonstrate their usefulness for today's industrially relevant problems. Reasoning in Boolean Networks provides lucid descriptions of basic algorithmic concepts in automatic test pattern generation, logic synthesis and verification and elaborates their intimate relationship to provide further intuition and insight into the subject. Numerous examples are provide for ease in understanding the material. Reasoning in Boolean Networks is intended for researchers in logic synthesis, VLSI testing and formal verification as well as for integrated circuit designers who want to enhance their understanding of basic CAD methodologies.

In a bold and refreshingly informal style, this exciting text steers a middle course between elementary texts emphasizing connections with philosophy, logic, and electronic circuit design, and profound treatises aimed at advanced graduate students and professional mathematicians. It is written for readers who have studied at least two years of college-level mathematics. With carefully crafted prose, lucid explanations, and illuminating insights, it guides students to some of the deeper results of Boolean algebra --- and in particular to the important interconnections with topology --- without assuming a background in algebra, topology, and set theory. The parts of those subjects that are needed to understand the material are developed within the text itself. Highlights of the book include the normal form theorem; the homomorphism extension theorem; the isomorphism theorem for countable atomless Boolean algebras; the maximal ideal theorem; the celebrated Stone representation theorem; the existence and uniqueness theorems for canonical extensions and completions; Tarski’s isomorphism of factors theorem for countably complete Boolean algebras, and Hanf’s related counterexamples; and an extensive treatment of the algebraic-topological duality, including the duality between ideals and open sets, homomorphisms and continuous functions, subalgebras and quotient spaces, and direct products and Stone-Cech compactifications. A special feature of the book is the large number of exercises of varying levels of difficulty, from routine problems that help readers understand the basic definitions and theorems, to intermediate problems that extend or enrich material developed in the text, to harder problems that explore important ideas either not treated in the text, or that go substantially beyond its treatment. Hints for the solutions to the harder problems are given in an appendix. A detailed solutions manual for all exercises isavailable for instructors who adopt the text for a course.

In a bold and refreshingly informal style, this exciting text steers a middle course between elementary texts emphasizing connections with philosophy, logic, and electronic circuit design, and profound treatises aimed at advanced graduate students and professional mathematicians. It is written for readers who have studied at least two years of college-level mathematics. With carefully crafted prose, lucid explanations, and illuminating insights, it guides students to some of the deeper results of Boolean algebra --- and in particular to the important interconnections with topology --- without assuming a background in algebra, topology, and set theory. The parts of those subjects that are needed to understand the material are developed within the text itself. Highlights of the book include the normal form theorem; the homomorphism extension theorem; the isomorphism theorem for countable atomless Boolean algebras; the maximal ideal theorem; the celebrated Stone representation theorem; the existence and uniqueness theorems for canonical extensions and completions; Tarski’s isomorphism of factors theorem for countably complete Boolean algebras, and Hanf’s related counterexamples; and an extensive treatment of the algebraic-topological duality, including the duality between ideals and open sets, homomorphisms and continuous functions, subalgebras and quotient spaces, and direct products and Stone-Cech compactifications. A special feature of the book is the large number of exercises of varying levels of difficulty, from routine problems that help readers understand the basic definitions and theorems, to intermediate problems that extend or enrich material developed in the text, to harder problems that explore important ideas either not treated in the text, or that go substantially beyond its treatment. Hints for the solutions to the harder problems are given in an appendix. A detailed solutions manual for all exercises isavailable for instructors who adopt the text for a course.

There are two aspects to the theory of Boolean algebras; the algebraic and the set-theoretical. A Boolean algebra can be considered as a special kind of algebraic ring, or as a generalization of the set-theoretical notion of a field of sets. Fundamental theorems in both of these directions are due to M. H. STONE, whose papers have opened a new era in the develop­ ment of this theory. This work treats the set-theoretical aspect, with little mention being made of the algebraic one. The book is composed of two chapters and an appendix. Chapter I is devoted to the study of Boolean algebras from the point of view of finite Boolean operations only; a greater part of its contents can be found in the books of BIRKHOFF [2J and HERMES [1]. Chapter II seems to be the first systematic study of Boolean algebras with infinite Boolean operations. To understand Chapters I and II it suffices only to know fundamental notions from general set theory and set-theoretical topology. No know­ ledge of lattice theory or of abstract algebra is presumed. Less familiar topological theorems are recalled, and only a few examples use more advanced topological means; but these may be omitted. All theorems in both chapters are given with full proofs.

Boolean valued analysis is a technique for studying properties of an arbitrary mathematical object by comparing its representations in two different set-theoretic models whose construction utilises principally distinct Boolean algebras. The use of two models for studying a single object is a characteristic of the so-called non-standard methods of analysis. Application of Boolean valued models to problems of analysis rests ultimately on the procedures of ascending and descending, the two natural functors acting between a new Boolean valued universe and the von Neumann universe. This book demonstrates the main advantages of Boolean valued analysis which provides the tools for transforming, for example, function spaces to subsets of the reals, operators to functionals, and vector-functions to numerical mappings. Boolean valued representations of algebraic systems, Banach spaces, and involutive algebras are examined thoroughly. Audience: This volume is intended for classical analysts seeking powerful new tools, and for model theorists in search of challenging applications of nonstandard models.

Modern systems engineering (e. g. switching circuits design) and operations research (e. g. reliability systems theory) use Boolean functions with increasing regularity. For practitioners and students in these fields books written for mathe­ maticians are in several respects not the best source of easy to use information, and standard books, such as, on switching circuits theory and reliability theory, are mostly somewhat narrow as far as Boolean analysis is concerned. Further­ more, in books on switching circuits theory the relevant stochastic theory is not covered. Aspects of the probabilistic theory of Boolean functions are treated in some works on reliability theory, but the results deserve a much broader interpre­ tation. Just as the applied theory (e. g. of the Laplace transform) is useful in control theory, renewal theory, queueing theory, etc. , the applied theory of Boolean functions (of indicator variables) can be useful in reliability theory, switching circuits theory, digital diagnostics and communications theory. This book is aimed at providing a sufficiently deep understanding of useful results both in practical work and in applied research. Boolean variables are restricted here to indicator or O/l variables, i. e. variables whose values, namely 0 and 1, are not free for a wide range of interpretations, e. g. in digital electronics 0 for L ==low voltage and 1 for H == high voltage.

Analysis and Control of Boolean Networks presents a systematic new approach to the investigation of Boolean control networks. The fundamental tool in this approach is a novel matrix product called the semi-tensor product (STP). Using the STP, a logical function can be expressed as a conventional discrete-time linear system. In the light of this linear expression, certain major issues concerning Boolean network topology – fixed points, cycles, transient times and basins of attractors – can be easily revealed by a set of formulae. This framework renders the state-space approach to dynamic control systems applicable to Boolean control networks. The bilinear-systemic representation of a Boolean control network makes it possible to investigate basic control problems including controllability, observability, stabilization, disturbance decoupling etc.

Analysis and Control of Boolean Networks presents a systematic new approach to the investigation of Boolean control networks. The fundamental tool in this approach is a novel matrix product called the semi-tensor product (STP). Using the STP, a logical function can be expressed as a conventional discrete-time linear system. In the light of this linear expression, certain major issues concerning Boolean network topology – fixed points, cycles, transient times and basins of attractors – can be easily revealed by a set of formulae. This framework renders the state-space approach to dynamic control systems applicable to Boolean control networks. The bilinear-systemic representation of a Boolean control network makes it possible to investigate basic control problems including controllability, observability, stabilization, disturbance decoupling etc.

Analysis and Control of Boolean Networks presents a systematic new approach to the investigation of Boolean control networks. The fundamental tool in this approach is a novel matrix product called the semi-tensor product (STP). Using the STP, a logical function can be expressed as a conventional discrete-time linear system. In the light of this linear expression, certain major issues concerning Boolean network topology – fixed points, cycles, transient times and basins of attractors – can be easily revealed by a set of formulae. This framework renders the state-space approach to dynamic control systems applicable to Boolean control networks. The bilinear-systemic representation of a Boolean control network makes it possible to investigate basic control problems including controllability, observability, stabilization, disturbance decoupling etc.

Boolean Algebras in Analysis consists of two parts. The first concerns the general theory at the beginner's level. Presenting classical theorems, the book describes the topologies and uniform structures of Boolean algebras, the basics of complete Boolean algebras and their continuous homomorphisms, as well as lifting theory. The first part also includes an introductory chapter describing the elementary to the theory. The second part deals at a graduate level with the metric theory of Boolean algebras at a graduate level. The covered topics include measure algebras, their sub algebras, and groups of automorphisms. Ample room is allotted to the new classification theorems abstracting the celebrated counterparts by D.Maharam, A.H. Kolmogorov, and V.A.Rokhlin. Boolean Algebras in Analysis is an exceptional definitive source on Boolean algebra as applied to functional analysis and probability. It is intended for all who are interested in new and powerful tools for hard and soft mathematical analysis.

Boolean Algebras in Analysis consists of two parts. The first concerns the general theory at the beginner's level. Presenting classical theorems, the book describes the topologies and uniform structures of Boolean algebras, the basics of complete Boolean algebras and their continuous homomorphisms, as well as lifting theory. The first part also includes an introductory chapter describing the elementary to the theory. The second part deals at a graduate level with the metric theory of Boolean algebras at a graduate level. The covered topics include measure algebras, their sub algebras, and groups of automorphisms. Ample room is allotted to the new classification theorems abstracting the celebrated counterparts by D.Maharam, A.H. Kolmogorov, and V.A.Rokhlin. Boolean Algebras in Analysis is an exceptional definitive source on Boolean algebra as applied to functional analysis and probability. It is intended for all who are interested in new and powerful tools for hard and soft mathematical analysis.

Sheaves of Algebras over Boolean Spaces comprehensively covers sheaf theory as applied to universal algebra. The text presents intuitive ideas from topology such as the notion of metric space and the concept of central idempotent from ring theory. These lead to the abstract notions of complex and factor element, respectively. Factor elements are defined by identities, discovered for shells for the first time, explaining why central elements in rings and lattices have their particular form. Categorical formulations of the many representations by sheaves begin with adjunctions and move to equivalences as the book progresses, generalizing Stone’s theorem for Boolean algebras. Half of the theorems provided in the text are new; the rest are presented in a coherent framework, starting with the most general, and proceeding to specific applications. Many open problems and research areas are outlined, including a final chapter summarizing applications of sheaves in diverse fields not covered earlier in the book. This monograph is suitable for graduate students and researchers, and it will serve as an excellent reference text for those who wish to learn about sheaves of algebras.

This book is concerned with cardinal number valued functions defined for any Boolean algebra. Examples of such functions are independence, which assigns to each Boolean algebra the supremum of the cardinalities of its free subalgebras, and cellularity, which gives the supremum of cardinalities of sets of pairwise disjoint elements. Twenty-one such functions are studied in detail, and many more in passing. The questions considered are the behaviour of these functions under algebraic operations such as products, free products, ultraproducts, and their relationships to one another. Assuming familiarity with only the basics of Boolean algebras and set theory, through simple infinite combinatorics and forcing, the book reviews current knowledge about these functions, giving complete proofs for most facts. A special feature of the book is the attention given to open problems, of which 185 are formulated. Based on Cardinal Functions on Boolean Algebras (1990) and Cardinal Invariants on Boolean Algebras (1996) by the same author, the present work is much larger than either of these. It contains solutions to many of the open problems of the earlier volumes. Among the new topics are continuum cardinals on Boolean algebras, with a lengthy treatment of the reaping number. Diagrams at the end of the book summarize the relationships between the functions for many important classes of Boolean algebras, including interval algebras, tree algebras and superatomic algebras.

This book is concerned with cardinal number valued functions defined for any Boolean algebra. Examples of such functions are independence, which assigns to each Boolean algebra the supremum of the cardinalities of its free subalgebras, and cellularity, which gives the supremum of cardinalities of sets of pairwise disjoint elements. Twenty-one such functions are studied in detail, and many more in passing. The questions considered are the behaviour of these functions under algebraic operations such as products, free products, ultraproducts, and their relationships to one another. Assuming familiarity with only the basics of Boolean algebras and set theory, through simple infinite combinatorics and forcing, the book reviews current knowledge about these functions, giving complete proofs for most facts. A special feature of the book is the attention given to open problems, of which 185 are formulated. Based on Cardinal Functions on Boolean Algebras (1990) and Cardinal Invariants on Boolean Algebras (1996) by the same author, the present work is much larger than either of these. It contains solutions to many of the open problems of the earlier volumes. Among the new topics are continuum cardinals on Boolean algebras, with a lengthy treatment of the reaping number. Diagrams at the end of the book summarize the relationships between the functions for many important classes of Boolean algebras, including interval algebras, tree algebras and superatomic algebras.

This book describes the latest Russian research covering the structure and algorithmic properties of Boolean algebras from the algebraic and model-theoretic points of view. A significantly revised version of the author's Countable Boolean Algebras (Nauka, Novosibirsk, 1989), the text presents new results as well as a selection of open questions on Boolean algebras. Other current features include discussions of the Kottonen algebras in enrichments by ideals and automorphisms, and the properties of the automorphism groups.